The Uighur Muslims left an impress of their culture and accomplishments on Chinese arts, crafts, languages and literary traditions. During the Mongol period, Ali Yahya Uighuri served as the defence minister. The Uighur Muslims played a highly important role in the spread of Islam in northern China. Most of them are now concentrated in the province of Xinjiang, which borders eight countries. In 1950 Uighurs constituted nearly 94% of the population of the province. In the 1960s Chinese authorities began to carry out an orchestrated policy of planned migration of Han Chinese to Xinjiang, as a result of which the Uighur population was reduced to less than half.

Though the Chinese constitution guarantees freedom of religion, in reality few have the liberty to practise their faith as they would like to. This is specially the case with Chinese Muslims. During the past several decades China has carried out a policy of brutal repression and persecution of Uighur Muslims, as a result of which thousands of Uighurs have fled the country and taken refuge in Central Asia. The Uighurs, unlike the Hui Muslims, have scrupulously safeguarded their religious and ethnic identity.

Though the Chinese constitution guarantees freedom of religion, in reality few have the liberty to practise their faith as they would like to. This is specially the case with Chinese Muslims. During the past several decades China has carried out a policy of brutal repression and persecution of Uighur Muslims, as a result of which thousands of Uighurs have fled the country and taken refuge in Central Asia.

China has been accused by two US-based Human Rights Organizations, Human Rights Watch and Human Rights in China, of conducting a “crushing campaign of religious repression against Muslim Uighurs.” This campaign is ostensibly carried out in the name of anti-separatism and counter-terrorism. The repressive measures of the government range from surveillance of imams and forced closure of mosques to the detention of thousands of people and executions. The curriculum of Islamic educational institutions is required to be approved by the authorities. Imams have to attend political education camps. Religious literature has to be screened and approved by the authorities before circulation. After 9/11 Uighurs have been accused of being terrorists. East Turkestan Islamic Movement, the main religious and cultural organization of Uighurs in Xinjiang, has been declared a terrorist group by both China and the US.

Rebiya Kadeer, a Uighur woman, was once a successful businesswoman in Xinjiang. She was a member of the government’s highest consultative body in the province. She fell out of favour when her husband, who was a former political prisoner, fled the country and sought political asylum in the US in 1999. Rebiya Kadeer was accused of anti-national activities because she sent newspaper clippings to her husband in the US about the persecution of Uighurs in China. She was detained in 2000 and, after five years of torture, was finally released in 2005. She has now taken asylum in the US. “It is easy for the government to say that Uighurs are terrorists, because they are Muslims. Many Uighurs have been falsely persecuted for this,” she said.

In February 2007, an ethnic Uighur Muslim activist, Ismail Semed, was executed by the Chinese authorities in the far western city of Urumqi, capital of Xinjiang, on charges of separatism and treason. His wife, however, said her husband had told the court during his trial that he had been forced by the authorities to make a confession.

As a result of growing economic ties between China and Muslim countries in Central Asia and the Middle East and the indictment of the country’s rulers for the violation of human rights by international human rights organizations, China is under increasing pressure to treat its Muslim minorities in a fair and just manner.

Eating less, living healthier and longer

According to a recent research conducted at the Pennington Biomedical Research Centre at Louisiana University in the US and published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, eating about 25% fewer calories for six months has a positive bearing on better health and longer life. The findings of the study—called the Comprehensive Assessment of the Long-Term Effects of Reducing Intake of Energy (CALERIE)—suggest that all subjects included in the study who dieted or increased their exercise lost body weight, but those who reduced their calorie intake registered lower fasting insulin levels and lower body temperature. They also had less oxidation damage to their DNA, which is a marker of ageing at the biochemical and cellular level. Low-calorie diets have been found to drive the body to replace and repair damaged cells.

More than a decade ago, John Holloszy, professor of medicine at Washington University in St Louis, Missouri, had demonstrated that a strict calorie-reduced diet in mice and rats increased their longevity by about 30%. Similar results have been obtained in the study of rhesus monkeys. Recently, Professor Stephen Spindler and his collaborators at the University of California have discovered that reducing calorie intake even later in life results in substantial health and longevity benefits.

The quantum of calorie intake generally varies according to gender and physical activity. The following table provides a broad indication of the standard energy allowance or calorie intake according to gender and physical activity.

In the case of females, the energy allowance or calorie intake is substantially increased during pregnancy and lactation for obvious reasons. The nature of diet has a significant bearing on health and longevity. It is known that a diet of vegetables, fruits and fish is better for health and longevity than one of red meat.

Obesity has major adverse effects on health. Morbidly obese individuals have as much as a twelve-fold increase in mortality. Obesity is a major risk factor for diabetes, and nearly 80% pf patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus are obese. Obesity has a positive bearing on reproductive disorders, pulmonary disease, joint and connective tissue disorders and menstrual abnormalities. It is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease in men and women (including coronary disease, stroke and congestive heart failure).

The urban lifestyle, which is being reinforced by globalisation, tends to be sedentary. A sedentary lifestyle, lack of exercise and a cholesterol-rich diet invariable lead to obesity. Obesity has major adverse effects on health. Morbidly obese individuals have as much as a twelve-fold increase in mortality. Obesity is a major risk factor for diabetes, and nearly 80% pf patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus are obese. Obesity has a positive bearing on reproductive disorders, pulmonary disease, joint and connective tissue disorders and menstrual abnormalities. It is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease in men and women (including coronary disease, stroke and congestive heart failure).

Islamic perspective on reduced calorie intake

While Islam allows the enjoyment of God’s bounties, which have been created for the benefit of mankind, it emphasizes moderation and discourages wasteful consumption (Quran 7:31-32). The Prophet used to pray: “O Allah! Give subsistence to the family of Muhammad which just suffices its needs.” He is reported to have said that two persons’ food actually suffices for three and three persons’ food for four. He advised people to leave the table before one is fully satiated. He is reported to have said: “A believer eats in one intestine while an unbeliever eats in seven intestines.” Once someone belched with a sound in the presence of the Prophet. The Prophet expressed his displeasure and told him: “Keep your belch under check, for the most hungry person on the Day of Judgement will be the one whose stomach is filled with food in this world.”

Caliph Umar is reported to have said: “Refrain from filling your stomachs, for the food (that is over-eaten) is a burden in this world and a foul-smelling thing after death.” Hasan, the celebrated sage of Basra used to say that the quantity of food that suffices a goat’s young one—a small measure of dried dates and some water--is sufficient for a believer. Imam Shafi’i is reported to have said: “One who desires God’s mercy and learning should seek solitude, eat less and avoid the company of fools and of scholars who are devoid of a sense of justice and etiquette.”

In the Sufi tradition, the most effective means of taming and gaining control over one’s base self (nafs) is reduced eating and fasting. The Sufis prescribe three “reductions” for the purpose of cleansing one’s heart and mind of undesirable qualities: reduced food, reduced conversation, and reduced sleep. The eminent Sufi poet Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi asked: Could the reedflute sing if its stomach were filled? Annemarie Schimmel, in her celebrated work Mystical Dimensions of Islam (1975), has remarked that “it would be worth investigating to what extent this restriction to extremely small quantities of food contributed to the longevity of the Sufis. It is astonishing how many of them lived to be so old” (p. 116).

Annemarie Schimmel, in her celebrated work Mystical Dimensions of Islam (1975), has remarked that “it would be worth investigating to what extent this restriction to extremely small quantities of food contributed to the longevity of the Sufis. It is astonishing how many of them lived to be so old” (p. 116).

Banning minarets on mosques

Nearly all European countries recognize ethnic and religious diversity in theory. But when it comes to actually conceding religious and cultural freedom to Muslims and other minorities, the issue gets bogged down in contestation and controversy.

The Swiss People’s Party, which has the majority of seats in Switzerland’s parliament, recently started a campaign to ban minarets on mosques. It argues that minarets symbolise Islamic law, which has no place in Switzerland’s legal system. It is seeking a referendum on the issue and until such time as the referendum is held, mosques are not permitted to raise minarets. The move has caused shock and deep resentment among Switzerland’s Muslims, who number about 35,000. At present only two mosques—one in Geneva and the other in Zurich—have minarets, but they are not allowed to use them for calling the faithful to prayer.

In 2000 the opening of two mosques on the periphery of Milan in Italy had created a storm of controversy. A local Muslim organization COREIS (Association of Italian Converts to Islam) in Lodi, a small town on the outskirts of Milan, had requested the local municipality for a piece of land on which it wanted to build a mosque. The Mayor of Lodi conceded their request. This led to protests and demonstrations by the local people. The Lodi branch of the far-right Lega Nord whipped up xenophobic sentiments and organised a public rally on 14 October 2000 to protest against the mayor’s decision and to declare their opposition to the construction of the mosque. A Catholic priest celebrated mass in the protest march, suggesting that the local Catholic Church was also opposed to the construction of the mosque in the region. The issue was lapped up by the national media in Italy, which projected the controversy in the context of wider questions such as the limits of religious freedom, the rights and obligations of immigrants, and national culture and identity. The opening of a new mosque in Milan a fortnight later added fuel to the fire. The Italian media played a highly partisan role in this debate.

In Spain, there were three incidents of attacks on mosques in Catalonia and Madrid in 2003. Twelve cases of opposition to the opening of mosques by local people were reported. In a small seaside town near Barcelona, the local white community pressurised the authorities to rescind the permission given for the construction of a mosque. The mosque was eventually shifted from the town centre to the outskirts. Recently, two mosques in London and Bradford were attacked and the car of the local imam was set on fire.

Such instances of Islamophobia put a question mark on European claims of equality, tolerance and human rights.

The vanishing of an academic sanctuary

E. J. Brill and Brill’s Bookstore in Leiden (The Netherlands) have been intimately connected with the history of European orientalism for more than three centuries. They have been the most reputed publishers of books and journals on Islamic studies and oriental subjects. In February 2006 Mr Rijk Smitskamp, the present owner of Brill’s Bookstore, decided to close business after more than three centuries of service to the world of oriental scholarship. The closure of the bookshop marks the end of a glorious era in oriental publication.

In 1683 Jordaan Luchtmans established a publishing house cum bookshop in the centre of Leiden, which soon became famous for its first-rate and scholarly publications in the fields of classics, oriental studies, philology and theology. In the course of time Brill established close networking with eminent orientalists, such as de Goeje, professor of Arabic at Leiden University, and emerged as a leading publisher of books and journals on oriental languages, religious traditions and cultures. In the 19th century, Brill had the highest quality Arabic fonts. The multi-volume monumental history of al-Tabari was published by Brill in 1879-1901. Brill published the Encyclopaedia of Islam (in German, French and English) first in 1913 and later in 1987.

The Encyclopaedia of Islam, published in four volumes, contains articles written by eminent European scholars on a wide range of Islamic subjects, including the history and geography of the Islamic world, eminent personalities, religious, cultural and political institutions, arts and crafts, architecture, languages and literary traditions, Islamic disciplines and Muslim contributions to science, medicine and philosophy. The preparation and publication of the first edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam took nearly 40 years. An abridged version was published in 1953 as the Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam. The second edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam was begun in 1954 and completed in 2005, and is available in English and French. Since 1999 the Encyclopaedia of Islam has been available in electronic form in both CD-ROM and web-accessible versions.

Articles in the first edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam were entirely written by European scholars and orientalists and represented a typically European and orientalist interpretation of Islamic civilization. Some of the analyses and interpretations in the Encyclopaedia of Islam are at variance with the beliefs and views of Muslims. The second edition of the encyclopaedia contains substantial contributions by Muslim scholars. The publication of the third edition of the Encyclopaedia of Islam is scheduled to start in 2007. It will be available online.

Punjab University, Lahore published an Urdu translation of the Encyclopaedia of Islam under the guidance of Dr Muhammad Shafi in 24 volumes in the 1970s. This monumental work—called Daira-e-Ma’arif-e-Islamiya--is unique on three counts and is even better than the original in certain respects. First, it has rendered into Urdu the valuable researches of European scholars and orientalists relating to Islamic subjects. Second, it provides a corrective to many distortions and misrepresentations contained in the original. Third, it contains freshly written articles by eminent Muslim scholars.

Punjab University, Lahore published an Urdu translation of the Encyclopaedia of Islam under the guidance of Dr Muhammad Shafi in 24 volumes in the 1970s. This monumental work—called Daira-e-Ma’arif-e-Islamiya--is unique on three counts and is even better than the original in certain respects. First, it has rendered into Urdu the valuable researches of European scholars and orientalists relating to Islamic subjects. Second, it provides a corrective to many distortions and misrepresentations contained in the original. Third, it contains freshly written articles by eminent Muslim scholars.

One of the highly significant books published by Brill is Carl Brockelmann’s monumental Geschichte der Arabischen Littratur in 5 volumes. This is a standard and universally-acclaimed bibliographical reference work for Arabic literature ranging from pre-Islamic times to early 20th century. A new edition of the book was published by Brill in 1996. Another significant work of a similar nature published by Brill is Fuat Sezgin’s Geschichte des Arabischen Schrifttums in 9 volumes. This truly monumental work, for which Fuat Sezgin was awarded the prestigious Faisal Award, greatly augments and expands the scope of Brockelmann’s book by adding an enormous amount of fresh and original research.

Brill has recently published Encyclopaedia of the Quran in six volumes (2001-2006). This work, which is alphabetically arranged, contains nearly 1000 articles on important themes and subjects related to the Quran, including exegesis, personalities, terms, concepts, place names, and cultural history.

Brill’s Bookstore also deals in old and rare books as well as manuscripts in Arabic, Persian, Turkish and other oriental languages. They acquired valuable collections of rare books in Islamic subjects from Muslim countries and then sold them to libraries and universities in Europe, USA, Canada, Australia and other countries. For more than a century, books and manuscripts from the estates of many famous European orientalists were sold after their death to Brill’s which, in turn, were sold to universities across the world. Brill’s brought out lavishly printed catalogues of rare manuscripts acquired by them in Arabic, Persian, Turkish and other oriental languages. Joseph Schacht’s valuable collection on Islamic law was acquired by Brill’s and later sold to a university in Malaysia.

The closure of Brill’s Bookshop coincides with the dwindling popularity of orientalism as a field of study. Since the publication of Edward Said’s classic work Orientalism in 1978, the field is increasingly looked down upon as an old-fashioned and obsolete approach to research. During the past three or four decades Western scholars have increasingly realised the value of pursuing the study of Islam and Muslims from a holistic, inter-disciplinary perspective.